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Exam II
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Essays-Using information from the book and lectures please answer the questions below.
For all questions, please paraphrase and cite references APA style–do not “quote” directly.
Double Space
State the questions and number. These require some thought and application of the ideas you have learned. There are no “cookie cutter” responses available in any text.
Use APA style for citations/grammar/headings (if you use them) etc. Specifically, you must include in text citations and include a reference list.
Please submit a word document
These must be essay style answers/ no bullet points.
Each question value is stated for each below pts-25% grammar and 75% content
BTW psychology is not capitalized within sentences.
Do not use contractions
Do not use websites for answers
These questions require 1-2 page(s) answers each to be complete
1. Essay answer required 10 pts. What are the major similarities and differences between Watson and Skinner’s ideas regarding behaviorism? From your understanding of psychological principles, which of them had a greater influence in the areas of both research and applied psychology?
2. Essay answer required (10 pts.). Explain evolutionary theory according to Darwin. Use at least one example of the evolutionary process that Darwin witnessed during his journey on the HMS Beagle. Be sure to consider uniformitarianism and catastrophism in your explanation. There was very specific consideration of those two theories in the context of Darwinian science that we discussed in class.
3. Long Answer (15 pts.). Titchener’s behavior toward women in Psychology was contradictory, in that he sometimes supported and sometimes impeded their professional growth. Please discuss this contradiction using the information from the following academic journal to support your discussion: Titchener, women psychologists, and the experimentalists. The article is located in the files directory.
Here is the way to cite the article:
Proctor, R. W., & Evans, R. (2014). E B Titchener, women psychologists, and the experimentalists. The American Journal of Psychology, 127(4), 501–526. https://doi-org.proxy-ub.researchport.umd.edu/10.5406/amerjpsyc.127.4.0501
SOLUTION
. Major Similarities and Differences Between Watson and Skinner’s Behaviorism and Their Influence on Psychology
Both John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner are pivotal figures in the development of behaviorism, a school of psychology focused on observable behaviors rather than internal mental states. Watson is often credited with founding behaviorism, emphasizing that psychology should be an objective science focused solely on behavior, which is shaped entirely by environmental stimuli and responses (Watson, 1913, as cited in Schultz & Schultz, 2016). Skinner, however, expanded upon Watson’s ideas by introducing operant conditioning, which involves learning through consequences, such as reinforcements and punishments (Skinner, 1938, as cited in Schultz & Schultz, 2016).
A key similarity between Watson and Skinner lies in their focus on observable behavior as the main subject of psychological study and their rejection of introspection and the study of consciousness (Schultz & Schultz, 2016). Both agreed that behavior is learned and that environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping it. However, they differed in their approach to learning mechanisms. Watson concentrated more on classical conditioning—associating stimuli to elicit responses—while Skinner focused on operant conditioning, emphasizing the role of reinforcement and voluntary behaviors (Schultz & Schultz, 2016).
In terms of influence, Skinner arguably had a greater impact on both research and applied psychology because operant conditioning provided a practical framework for behavior modification used in educational settings, clinical interventions, and organizational management (Catania, 2013). Skinner’s work also influenced applied behavior analysis (ABA), which is widely used in therapies for autism and behavioral disorders. While Watson laid the groundwork for behaviorism, Skinner’s detailed experimental procedures and applications have had broader contemporary relevance (Schultz & Schultz, 2016).
In summary, while Watson and Skinner share foundational behaviorist principles, Skinner’s operant conditioning theory represents a more comprehensive and applicable model for understanding and modifying behavior, which has led to his more enduring influence in psychology.
2. Darwin’s Evolutionary Theory: Uniformitarianism, Catastrophism, and the HMS Beagle Example
Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection posits that species change over time through the differential survival and reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits (Darwin, 1859, as discussed in Buss, 2015). Darwin suggested that variation exists naturally within populations and that environmental pressures “select” traits that enhance survival, leading to gradual evolutionary changes.
During his voyage on the HMS Beagle, Darwin observed finches on the Galápagos Islands with varied beak shapes adapted to different food sources. This variation illustrated how environmental factors influence which traits are beneficial and thus passed on (Darwin, 1859, as cited in Buss, 2015).
Darwin’s evolutionary ideas were shaped in part by the geological concepts of uniformitarianism and catastrophism. Uniformitarianism, proposed by Charles Lyell, argued that geological processes occur gradually over long periods and shape Earth’s features continuously (Buss, 2015). Darwin adopted this perspective to support the idea that biological change is also gradual. In contrast, catastrophism suggested that Earth’s history was marked by sudden, violent events causing rapid changes. Darwin’s theory refuted catastrophism in favor of slow, cumulative processes driving evolutionary change (Buss, 2015).
Thus, Darwin’s evolutionary theory integrates natural selection with geological principles emphasizing gradual change, demonstrated by his observations of species adapting to diverse environments over time.
3. Titchener’s Contradictory Behavior Toward Women in Psychology
E.B. Titchener, a prominent early psychologist, exhibited contradictory behavior regarding the professional roles of women in psychology. While he supported some women as experimentalists, he simultaneously impeded broader female participation in the field. Proctor and Evans (2014) detail that Titchener trained several women in experimental psychology and recognized their scientific capabilities. However, he also upheld institutional barriers that limited women’s access to professional societies, notably barring women from full membership in the prestigious Society of Experimental Psychologists (Proctor & Evans, 2014).
This contradiction stemmed from Titchener’s personal beliefs about gender roles, which aligned with prevailing social norms that relegated women to subordinate positions despite their academic potential (Proctor & Evans, 2014). While his mentorship helped launch some women’s careers, his resistance to institutional equality slowed progress for female psychologists overall. This paradox illustrates how early psychology was shaped by complex dynamics where individual support did not always translate into systemic change.
Therefore, Titchener’s legacy regarding women in psychology is mixed: he fostered some female talent but maintained discriminatory structures that limited women’s professional advancement (Proctor & Evans, 2014).
References
Buss, D. M. (2015). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind (5th ed.). Routledge.
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning (5th ed.). Wadsworth.
Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species. John Murray.
Proctor, R. W., & Evans, R. (2014). E B Titchener, women psychologists, and the experimentalists. The American Journal of Psychology, 127(4), 501–526. https://doi-org.proxy-ub.researchport.umd.edu/10.5406/amerjpsyc.127.4.0501
Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2016). A history of modern psychology (11th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. Appleton-Century.
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177.
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